• An integrated weed management (IWM) approach was used incorporating integrated Harrington Seed Destructor (iHSD), herbicide, hand picking, crop rotation and early grazing opportunities
• After seven years wild radish numbers were controlled on paddocks that previously had high densities 
• Between 2018 and 2020 the radish population was reduced by 71%

• In 2021 lentils produced similar yields from April 1 to May 14.
• Chickpeas sown in April were lower yielding, with high rates of flower abortion. Highest yield was achieved by sowing in mid-May.

• In 2020 lentils produced similar biomass from all times of sowing.
• Seed yields were highest from June sowing.

 

• Over the longer term PBA Hallmark XT has outperformed PBA Hurricane XT and growers interested in IMI tolerant lentils are encouraged to try this variety on their farm

• Timely harvest can make a big difference to yields when lentils produce high biomass. • Over the longer term PBA Hallmark XT has outperformed PBA Hurricane XT and growers interested in IMI tolerant lentils are encouraged to try this variety on their farm

• PBA Hallmark XT – the new imi tolerant variety released in 2018 –performed well at Mingenew matching the yield of all other released varieties.
• Over the longer term PBA Hallmark XT has outperformed PBA Hurricane XT and growers interested in IMI tolerant lentils are encouraged to try this variety on their farm.

• Lentils are well suited to the heavier soils of Dalwallinu
• The newly released variety PBA Highland XT produced the highest yields of 1 t/ha in tough conditions.

• Lentils are well suited to the heavier soils of Mingenew
• The newly released variety PBA Highland XT produced the highest yields
• XT lines will prove useful if farmers have SU residues or use IMI herbicides

 

• PBA Hallmark XT handled SU residues better than PBA Bolt
• Lentils should not be sprayed with Metribuzin on light lands until metribuzin tolerant varieties are made available. 
• Until that time IMI herbicides and XT lentils are probably the safest option on light lands in WA or consider alternative species.

• PBA Highland XT produced higher yields than the standard variety PBA Bolt
• PBA Highland XT appeared to have better herbicide tolerance than PBA Bolt
• Deeper sowing and rolling immediately after sowing increased crop safety and yields
• Applying soil active herbicides prior to sowing increased crop safety

• The impact of nitrogen rate and fungicide strategy on canola grain yield and seed quality was investigated at two field sites.Increasing nitrogen rate decreased oil % in seed.
• 280kg/ha nitrogen increased protein compared with the 100kg/ha treatment.
• There was no impact of fungicide applications although the season was not conducive to disease development. Observations failed to detect disease in either trial.
• Analysis of coarse and fine stubble fractions showed increasing N concentration and yield of each fraction with increasing N rate.
• Higher amounts of soil mineral N were present at end of autumn 2021 following high rates of fertiliser N in the previous season.
• High N fertiliser rates increase the N concentration of stubble residue and the total amount of stubble.
• The higher soil N in the following season is only a small proportion of the additional fertiliser N, a small compensation for over fertilising should the previous canola crop yield well below expectation.

• Liming decreases surface soil acidity.
• The incorporation of lime increased the movement of the lime to the 10-20cm layer neutralising subsoil acidity.
• Subsoil aluminium levels at this site fit WA relationships that toxic Al above 2 mg/kg occur when pH (CaCl2) is below 4.5

• Rip to below your compacted layer
• Ripping to 60cm reduced soil strength, and this effect continued into the second year after ripping
• Wheat yield response to the 60cm rip treatment paid for deep ripping in the first year
• It is important to understand potential yield benefits of ripping before you rip

Later grazing may have benefits in severely frost prone areas, but in the event that there is no frost, yield will be compromised. Grazing has successfully delayed flowering date and for the early grazing it would appear that there is roughly a 1 day delay in flowering for 2 days grazing.

• Decision support tools such as ‘Select Your Nitrogen’ and ‘CliMate’ can help decision making with in-season nitrogen applications.
• In a decile 1 year there are limited benefits from in season nitrogen applications when yield does not increase with additional N fertiliser.
• Better economic returns result when both yield and protein are increased in higher decile years.
• It is important to understand production goal and the potential economic return of your nitrogen inputs.

• Cu and Zn basal in 1957

• Mo and Mn applied as cross strips in 1959

• Only a end of the experiment showed pale clover and a marked response to Mo.

• Conclusion little chance of Mo reponses ; unlikely to be extensive areas of Mo defiicency on this soil type in the district

Mn defiiecy patches noted through the experiment al. Nil Mn were more severe 

Topdressed Mn appeared the have similar symptoms to nil Mn

Drilled Mn at the low and high rate had less Mn symptoms

Mn foliar sprays had less Mn yellow patches.

Mn foliar sprays improved dry matter production by about 350 kg/ha in early- September

Mn foliar increased dry matter by 1200- 1500 kg/ha by late-September.

Topdressed Mn less effective than drilled

• Summary of 8 experimentsover 3 seasons esperiments for esperance sandplain.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Soil deep siliceous grey sands 

• Dtpa Mn < 3.5 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 1.3 - 1.6 t/ha

• hence no determination on methods of placement were possible

• Summary of 2 experimentsover 3 seasons esperiments on  sandplain soils.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Soil grey sands Deep phase gibson sand

• Dtpa Mn < 4.0 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 3.5 -3.75 t/ha

• hence no determination on methods of placement were possible for wheat

• Summary of 2 experiments over 5 seasons esperiments.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Wheat showed no response to freshly applied and previously applied Mn fertiliser

• Soil grey sands Deep phase gibson sand

• Dtpa Mn < 4.0 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 3.5 -3.75 t/ha

• hence no determination on either methods of placement were possible for wheat

• Mn concentration in young leaves > 20 mg/ka & Mn concentration in grain > 30 both from nil Mn 

• Nor residual value fot wheat could be determined

 

• Summary of 8 experimentsover 3 seasons esperiments for west Midlands sandplain.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Soil deep siliceous grey sands 

• Dtpa Mn < 3.0 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 1.25 - 1.75 t/ha

• hence no determination on methods of placement were possible

• Summary of 2 experimentsover 3 seasons esperiments on  sandplain soils.

• For wheat, sites were selected where lipins gave a large seed reponse in the previous year. Lupins produced much split seed.

• Soil grey sands with little gravel

• Dtpa Mn < 4.0 mg/kg soil

• However for wheat there was no grain yield response to Mn. Grain yield ranges from 2.5 -2.75 t/ha

• hence no determination on methods of placement were possible for wheat

Experiment started in 1983

1986:

80 g Mo/ha in 1983 was as effective Mo topdressed in 1986.

320 g/ha of Mo gave maximum dry matter production of clover; about a 12% increase

Experiment started in 1983

1996:

80 g Mo/ha in 1983 was as less efective than Mo topdressed in 1997.

320 g/ha of Mo in 1996 gave maximum dry matter production of clover; about a 20% increase.

Residual value of Mo for subclover growth at recommended rates lasted about 13 years.

Soil pH was 4.4 with low soil extractable Al; residual value would be expected to be less as soil pH decreases & Al increases

Experiment started in 1992 reddish brown sandy loam ; soil pH (CaCl2) of 5.7.

1992:

Small (15%)  response to limesand at 1.5 t/ha & to Mo application applied as sodium molybdate.

Nitrogen concentration of medic increased from 4.2 to 5% with Mo application @ 200g/ha, 1.5 & 3 t/ha limesand.

limesand with Mo did not increase yield or N content compared with 200 g of Na molybdate alone.

Critical Mo concentratin in clover tops appeared to be 0.09 mg/kg

Combination of lime sand (1.5 t/ha) and 200 g Na molybdate recommended: increased dry matter produced by 30% above the control.

3 t/ha limesand produced the same yield without Mo.

 

Experiment started in 1992 reddish brown sandy loam ; soil pH (CaCl2) of 5.0.

1994:

Small (12%)  response to Mo application applied as sodium molybdate.

Nitrogen concentration of medic increased from 5.8 to 6.1% with Mo application.

limesand with Mo did not increase yield or N content compared with 200 g of Na molybdate alone.

Critical Mo concentratin in medic tops appeared to be 0.1 mg/kg

Combination of lime sand (1t/ha) and 150 g Na molybdate recommended

 A series of experiments started in 1981 and 1982 on acidic yelllow sands that are deficient in Mo.  

Yellow  sandy earths with  soil pH (CaCl2) of <4.7.

1982: Nil & 6 rates of Mo applied over 2 years

Nil Mo grain yield was about 20% of the maximum. 

Critical Mo concentratin in wheat YEB s appeared to be 0.05 - 0.06 mg/kg

The evaluation of Mo in the YEB as a reliable tissue test but suggested continuing testing into future years.

 

 A series of experiments started in late 1970'S to the earlier 1980 on very acidic yelllow sands that are deficient in Mo.  

Yellow  acidic sandy earths with  soil pH (CaCl2) of <4.5. Mo trioxide at nil, 140 & 280 g/ha was applied on original nil Mo plots.

Summary of the Mo on very acidic yellow soils:

 With ammonium nitrate the recommended rate of Mo (140 g Mo trioxide) was  inadequate for wheat grain 2 -3 years later.. 

Mo effectiveness rapidly declines with 2 to 3 years after the application.

A general conclusion for this experimental series:_  The residual effectiveness of Mo for cereal is likely to vary widely in different situations depending on soil pH, soil content of free iron, aluminium and manganese and the rate and type of nitrogen fertliser applied to the crop.

Critical Mo concentratin in wheat YEB s appeared to be 0.03 - 0.06 mg/kg. The evaluation of Mo in the YEB as a reliable tissue test but suggested continuing testing into future years.

 

 A experiment started in 1965 on acidic yelllow sands that are deficient in Mo.  

Yellow  sandy earths with  soil pH (CaCl2) of <4.5. Mo trioxide at nil, 140 & 280 g/ha was applied in 1965

Mo application of 1965 continued to supply Mo to the 1980 wheat crop, but with only about one-tenth the effect of the 1980. Ammonium sulfate depressed Mo uptake ; sodium nitrate enhanced uptake. With ammonium sulfate the recommended rate of Mo (140 g Mo trioxide) in 1965 appeared inadequate for wheat 15 years later.. 

Critical Mo concentratin in wheat YEB s appeared to be 0.03 - 0.05 mg/kg. The evaluation of Mo in the YEB as a reliable tissue test but suggested continuing testing into future years.

 

• Aim to bait from mid-March to mid-April before seeding, and consider baiting again immediately post seeding. This timing will increase bait efficacy, increase likelihood of conditions suitable for snail movement, and be timed before most snails lay eggs.
• Bait in autumn not summer even if there is a lot of summer rain as control from baits can be low during summer
• Relative humidity above 85% is when snails are most active, so plan baiting to be before forecast periods of extended high humidity. Throw out test area before baiting whole program to be sure.

• In 2018 and 2019 Sothis increased soil levels of the root lesion nematode P.neglectus when compared to chemical fallow trial strips.
• During the 2020 season Rhizoctonia levels increased from zero to high risk levels in oats with Sothis germinating underneath.
• Monitoring of soilborne diseases through different rotations and seasons helps increase understanding of the impact on our farming systems

• One or two well timed fungicide applications increased yield 10% and full control a further 15%.
• Newer fungicides were more effective at supressing ascochyta but this did not translate to increased yield.
• Further testing of new fungicides is required in more locations and seasons.

• One or two well timed fungicide applications increased yield 10% and full control a further 15%.
• Newer fungicides were more effective at supressing ascochyta but this did not translate to increased yield.
• Further testing of new fungicides is required in more locations and seasons.

•  There was no protein or yield penalty in delaying all nitrogen to four weeks after emergence.
•  Delaying all nitrogen application to 10 weeks after emergence resulted in reduced grain yield due to little follow-up rain.

In a dry year hybrid RR canola with no applied nitrogen produced the best returns to growers. RR hybrids had higher oil and applying N reduced oil more than it increase yield. With TT technology CB Telfer the most popular variety in the low rainfall area produced the best combination of oil and yield. Hybrid TT was not superior to OP TT’s at Grass Patch in 2012. Late applications of N produced similar yield responses to earlier N applications.

The addition of clay even at low rates of 75 and 150 t/ha have been very effective in increasing the yield from an average 2.45 t/ha of the Control to about 2.95 t/ha. It is expected that the claying will have a long lasting effect and that the yield increases compared to the control will remain.

• Seeding date had a greater influence on oat grain yield, oat grain quality and return per hectare ($/ha) than variety selection or seed rate in 2015.
• Delaying seeding from early May to early June reduced grain yield by 32% and return per hectare by 45%.
• In lower rainfall environments Bannister is a better option than Carrolup, Williams and Yallara.
• When released, WA02Q302-9 will be a useful oat variety in situations where low hectolitre weight is consistently a problem or with later seeding opportunities.
• Maximum return per hectare was achieved between a target density of 100 to 200 plants/m2, which is in line with the suggested target density for grain oats in low rainfall areas of 160 plants/m2.
• The return per hectare of Bannister oat was maximised at a higher density than for Carrolup, WA02Q302-9, Williams and Yallara, suggesting Bannister should be sown at a higher target density than those varieties. This is a preliminary observation and more research is needed to confirm the optimum target density for the new milling oat varieties.

• Time of sowing had a greater influence on oat grain and hay yield, and oat grain quality than variety selection or level of applied nitrogen in 2015.
• High screenings limited the ability of grain to meet Oat1 quality standards, this was due to the detrimental impact of delayed seeding and/or applied nitrogen in excess of that required in lower rainfall environments.
• Applying more than 20 kg N/ha did not improve the return per hectare ($/ha); rather, applying 80 kg N/ha consistently reduced return per hectare ($/ha).
• Screening of Williams and Carrolup were more sensitive to applied nitrogen than WA02Q302-9, Bannister and Yallara.
• WA02Q302-9 appears a suitable replacement for Yallara and Carrolup, and should achieve a better hectolitre weight than Bannister at similar or lower yields.

 New variety Bilby  (breeding line 06204-16) out-yielded Carrolup (by 0.3 t/ha), but did not out-yield Williams, and was between Williams and Carrolup in grain quality. 

Similar to 2017, a mild finish to the growing season meant all varieties met Oat1 quality specifications, and reduced the response of varieties to changes in plant density and applied nitrogen.

 

 New variety Bilby  (breeding line 06204-16) out-yielded Carrolup (by 0.7 t/ha), but did not out-yield Williams , and had lower grain quality than Carrolup in grain quality. 

Similar to 2017, a mild finish to the growing season meant all varieties met Oat1 quality specifications, and agronomy had a reduced impact on grain quality.

 Kowari and Williams yielded similarly, and out-yielded newly accredited variety Bilby  (breeding line 06204-16) (by 0.15 t/ha) and Carrolup (by 0.25 t/ha).

Bilby was the most sensitivity to increasing nitrogen, with N increasing from 0 to 60kg N/ha significantly reducing Bilby’s hectolitre weight.

• No crop type on any soil achieved optimum plant density at this site, with canola treatments having extremely poor establishment.
• Overall, wheat had a significantly higher biomass than canola, lupins or chickpeas.
• Wheat yields were average to above average for the area depending on the soil type, which is a favourable result given the average decile 4 growing season rainfall.
• Canola yielded extremely poorly and proved to be a risky crop choice for the given season and soil types

• Crop establishment, biomass, yield and harvest index of wheat was largely unaffected by break crop rotation from the previous two seasons.
• Wheat yield was above district average for both the light and heavy soil site which was not expected on the average decile 4 rainfall.
• Grain produced from wheat following a pulse-canola rotation had higher protein content compared to the canola-chickpea rotation.

• Seasonal conditions during 2020 were not conducive to chocolate spot development and no significant yield difference was measured between fungicide spray regimes.
• Unnecessary application of fungicides reduces gross margins.
• Real-time IoT sensors (data loggers) used for crop microclimate monitoring can support timely fungicide use and reduce unnecessary prophylactic sprays.
• Further trials are required in disease-conducive seasons to increase confidence in the use of this technology for spray decision support.

Canola yield increased significantly up to, but not above, 200 kg N/ha.

There was little benefit to applying above 15P or any K, S or trace elements.

Fertilisers (both banded and top-dressed) significantly decreased plant establishment and early growth.

5 Experiments started in 1980's.

3 sources of Cu (sulfate (25%); oxychloride (52%)  & chelate (EDTA 15% Cu) at 7 levels of Cu

Applied at 2 growth stages of wheat grown at 5 sites

1 kg Cu/ha rsuilted in maximum yield of 2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts in each particular year.

1-2kg of Cu sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil (.5 tha nil Cu ; 2.5 t/ha adequate Cu)

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Chelate Cu always resukted in the highest yield per quantity of Cu while oxychloride always rsulted in the lowest grain yield per quantity of Cu .For example 100 g Cu/ha of chelate , 200 g as sulfate and 4000g oxychloride Cu for maximumgrain yield.

Sprays at 6th leaf were higher than late boot.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

5 Experiments started in 1980's reported in 1985-86.

Sources of Zn (sulfate (22%);  & chelate (EDTA 15% Zn) at 5-7 levels of Zn

Applied at 2 growth stages [4th leaf; mid-tillering] of wheat grown at 5 sites.

Wheat sprayed at 4th leaf yielded higher [ about 0.5 t/ha higher) than delaying until mid-tillering under severely Zn deficient plants.

0.45 kg Zn/ha for both times of spraying resuilted in maximum yield of 1.5 -2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts) in each particular year. About 50 -60% grain yield increases.

Zn chelate was more effective at the  4the leaf stage. About 200 g Zn/ha for maximum grain yield for chelate while 450 for the sulfate source.

At mid-tillering about 250-300 g Zn/ha required for maximum yield for both chelate and sulfate 

 Recommendation : 1 kg of Zn sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil; spray on onset of symptoms.

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Sprays at 4th leaf were higher yielding than the mid-tillering stage.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

• Birds preferentially attacked low density treatments and late maturing variety Hyola 450TT.
• The results from this site should be treated with caution.

 

• Grain yields of most canola varieties at Salmon Gums started to plateau at ~ 20 plants/m²
• Taking into account the costs of increasing plant density we calculated the economic optimum for higher cost seed types such as RR and hybrid TT to be 25 plants/m² or less
• Hyola 404RR had the flattest response indicating its yields were less affected by lower plant densities.

• RR hybrid canola maximised gross margins
• OP TT variety Sturt produced similar gross margins to the hybrid TT variety Hyola 450 TT
• Gross margins were optimised at:

             ~ 50 plants/m² for Sturt TT.

                5 to 25 plants/m² for Hyola 450TT.

              ~ 13 plants/m² for Pioneer 43Y23 RR.

 

In this 2013 trial:

• Canola yield responded to increasing plant density to 65 plants/m² but there was very little response at densities greater than 20 to 30 plants/m²
• The response was variable within this trial site, which means that is very likely to be quite variable across different years and locations. 
• Roundup Ready canola enabled much better weed control than triazine tolerant canola on this site.

In stressed conditions canola yields and gross margins were reduced at plant densities above 20 plants/m².

Despite being higher yielding and producing higher oil than CB Telfer TT, the higher seed costs of hybrid triazine tolerant variety Hyola 450TT resulted in lower gross margins.

Hybrid RoundupReady cultivar Hyola 404RR produced the highest yields and oil at Mullewa in 2013. 

Despite higher upfront costs Hyola 404RR also produced the highest gross margins.

At Chapman Valley in 2013 canola grain yields began to plateau at approximately 20-30 plants/m².  Economic optimum target densities were found to be @ 16 plants/m² for Hyola 404RR, 24 plants/m² for GT Viper, 33 plants/m² for Hyola 450TT, and 34 plants/m² for ATR Stingray.

Taking into account contingencies such as seeding errors, dry conditions at seeding and changes in seed size or viability we suggest that seed rates of RR and TT hybrids and RR OP at similar sites be around 1.9 to 2.3 kg/ha, whilst the cheaper seed of less competitive TT OP lines be sown at @ 4.0 kg/ha.

Increased crop density reduced annual ryegrass density.

Herbicides offered effective weed control, and performance of Sakura® and Boxer Gold® was similar in this season.

Triflur X® provided excellent control of barley grass over the entire site, although by August, weed density was lower following Triflur X® at 3L/ha rather than 2L/ha.

In 2020, Intervix® provided excellent control in-crop, preventing panicle production. In 2021 the field was too wet to spray in-crop herbicides.

Increased seeding rate increased crop density, and resulted in a non-significant reduction to barley grass panicles.

• Yields at very low seed rates of 0.3 and 0.5 kg/ha were comparable to yields at higher seed rates of 1.0 and 2.5 kg/ha when using a precision seeding machine.
• Yields in excess of 2.0 t/ha were achieved when sowing at 50 cm row spacing.
• These results suggest we should continue investigating more precise seed delivery systems.

• Yields at very low seed rates of 0.3 and 0.5 kg/ha were comparable to yields at higher seed rates of 1.0 and 2.5 kg/ha when using a precision seeding machine.
• Yields in excess of 2.0 t/ha were achieved when sowing at 50 cm row spacing.
• These results suggest we should continue investigating more precise seed delivery systems.

• Chaff lining is an evolving harvest weed seed control method
• It presents as a low cost, easy weed management tool
• It is considered to be good control for ryegrass and radish but not as successful for brome grass

•  Legume break crops reduced populations of RLN (Pratylenchus neglectus) in the soil while canola increased the population.
• RLN levels increased across the site after one season of Scepter wheat (a susceptible host) to medium risk levels on legume plots and high risk levels where canola had been a break crop.
• A single break crop in the rotation may be insufficient to effectively reduce disease inoculum beyond the season following a break crop year.

• Canola is not a break crop in paddocks if root lesion nematodes (RLN) and Rhizoctonia solani are both present
• Weed free legumes, pulses and pastures are the best options where RLN and R. solani co-exist in a paddock
• Cereals substantially increase RLN and R. solani levels while canola will also increase RLN

• Heavy infestation of aphids caused significant yield loss to canola in a high rainfall environment.
• The length of cabbage aphids on spikelets at flowering was directly proportional to yield loss.
• The function yield (kg/ha) = -141x + 1114 where x= spike length colonised in cm explained yield loss R2 0.9.
• Aphid colonisation also reduced seed quality: oil content and seed size.

• Benefit cost analysis using the small yield benefit (up to 100kg/ha) found on shallow ironstone areas in this paddock (0-3cm topsoil over ironstone sheet) showed a nil to negative return on investment.
• In 2019, the season was too dry to measure a yield response.
• In 2020, in-season data was collected but the season was dry with a hard finish (0.7t/ha paddock average) and no yield difference was measured. While the Reefinator may increase plant available water capacity, recent seasons have provided very little moisture.
• Yield maps are critical for ongoing monitoring of paddock machinery-scale treatments where soil variability can confound treatment effects.

In 1978, a residual value trial in which it is possible to compare the effectiveness of previuos applied Mn with cuuently applied Mn.  The Mn sulfate at 15, 30 & 60 kg/ha in 1978 produced maximum seed yield. The 15 & 30 kg Mn sulfate applied in 1982 produced the same maximum seed yield as Mn applied in 1978.  However, the 15 kg/ha of Mn sulfate applied in 1978 & 1982 still resulted in 11 - 16% split seed compared to the nil Mn that had 40% split seed. THe 30 kg Mn sul /ha reduced split seed to <5%.

The Mn concentration in whole shoot was 34 mg/kg; indicating Mn deficiency The Mn concentration in whole shoots with 15 kg Mn sul/ha was similar (80 mg/kg) for 1978 and 1982 applications.

THese results suggest that the residual value of soil applied Mn is greater than originally thought 

Rates nil to 5 kg Zn/ha applied in 1970. Results for 1977.

Zn applied in 1970 barely detectable although application of plain super at 250 kg/ha /yr since 1970 maintain Zn levels for near maximum yield of pasture..

The author indicated the following:  

Suggestion that results indicated need to reassess the Zn requirement of a wide on inherently Zn deficient soils. This is particularly so in the absence of Zn via the Zn impurities in super from traditional sources of rock phosphate. It maybe highly likely that some future date we may have to rely on low Zn containing Zn phosphates .  Unless more information is obtained in advanced there could be serious losses due to Zn deficiency some time in the future.

• Residual effects of high rates of nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus applied to canola could be detected in soil tests prior to seeding wheat in the following season.
• Nitrogen applied to the wheat crop had a much larger impact (1 t/ha grain yield increase) than carryover effects of nitrogen applied to the canola crop (up to 0.6% grain protein concentration increase).
• Phosphorus rates applied to canola influenced the yield of the following wheat crop only when no P was applied to the wheat, with no difference in yield when 27 kg P/ha was applied at seeding of the wheat.
• Growers in WA’s high rainfall zone are unlikely to see meaningful carryover effects in the cereal phase from high rates of nutrition applied to canola the year prior. They should, therefore, continue to focus on expected responses in the current year only when determining the most profitable rates of fertiliser to apply to their crops.

• Chickpea seed yield responded to 50 kg N/ha applied 8 weeks after sowing at Grass Patch in 2020
• Higher rates did not increase yields when applied at 8 weeks after sowing or in a split application at 8 and 12 weeks after sowing.
• Within plot variation resulted in no significant difference in the gross margin.

• Chickpea seed yield responded to 25-50 kg N/ha applied 18 weeks after sowing at Ridely in 2020
• Yield responses were not large enough to pay for the cost on applied nitrogen.
• Kabuli variety Gen090 produced similar yields to desi variety CBA Captain

• Applying 100 kg N/ha 8 weeks after sowing increased yield, but did not lead to increased gross margins
• Trial site was flooded in August – treat results with caution

• Applying nitrogen to lentil had no positive effect in 2020

• In dry years open-pollinated canola can produce small seed in low rainfall areas. Sowing the small seed at a low seeding rate of 2 kg/ha reduced yield and farmers could benefit by increasing the seeding rate to 4 kg/ha  in the following year or purchasing fresh seed.
• Grading small seed hard was not as reliable as increasing the seeding rate to 4 kg/ha.
• F2 hybrid seed produced lower yields than F1 seed unless seeding rates are increased to 4 kg/ha or mixes are made with F1 seed.
• Hybrid TT was less productive than open pollinated TT canola.

Farmers can safely retain OP seed for at least two years

Retained and graded hybrid TT seed had lower % establishment, variability in flowering, higher % of sterile flowers, lower oil and yield – but in this environment with yields below 1.5 t/ha the effects were not large enough to reduce gross margins compared to purchasing hybrid TT seed.

Farmers can safely retain OP seed for at least two years

Retained and graded hybrid TT seed had lower % establishment, variability in flowering, higher % of sterile flowers, lower oil and yield – but in this environment with yields below 1.5 t/ha the effects were not large enough to reduce gross margins compared to purchasing hybrid TT seed.

• At Grass Patch in 2018 hybrid TT’s produced higher yields and gross margins than most of the OP TT canola variety ATR Bonito treatments.
• Retaining ATR Bonito seed ‘on-farm’ for 1, 2, 3 or 4 years produced similar yields, oil and higher gross margins than purchasing new OP seed.
• Using ATR Bonito seed stored for 4 years produced plants lacking in vigour and overall poorer performance than growing out and retaining seed each year or purchasing new commercial seed.

• At Cunderdin in 2018 hybrid TT’s sown at the same target density produced similar yields to OP TT.
• With low seed costs, ATR Bonito retained for 2, 3 or 4 years produced equal highest gross margins of over $600/ha - Comparable to the high yielding hybrid Nuseed HyTTech Trophy.
• Retaining ATR Bonito seed ‘on-farm’ for 1, 2, 3 or 4 years produced similar yields, oil and higher gross margins than purchasing new OP seed.
• At our three sites in 2018, using ATR Bonito seed stored for 4 years produced plants lacking in vigour and overall poorer performance than growing out and retaining seed each year or purchasing new commercial seed.

• At Merredin in 2018 the OP TT canola variety ATR Bonito produced similar yields and higher oil than hybrid TT’s.Retaining ATR Bonito seed ‘on-farm’ for 4 years produced similar yields, oil and financial returns to purchasing new seed.
• Using ATR Bonito seed stored for 4 years produced plants lacking in vigour and overall poorer performance than growing out and retaining seed each year or purchasing new commercial seed.

• The resistance rating of cereal cultivars to RLN species affects RLN multiplication. Yenda wheat is more resistant than Calingiri wheat and these cultivars affected P. quasitereoides population size for two seasons following.
• In 2019, applying urea increased P. quasitereoides numbers more than applying none, with higher rates upfront at seeding associated with the highest RLN numbers at harvest. Applying urea also significantly increased yield.
• P. quasitereoides population size reduced over the 2019/20 summer by about half and reduced further over the 2020 growing season when Scepter wheat was grown.

• In 2018 there was a reduction in crown rot severity when Product X was applied, however this did not improve yield
• 2019 pre-season PreDictaB results showed a reduction in crown rot risk for Evergol, Product X and Vibrance
• The second year had no carry over benefit of seed dressings or previous year’s variety. These seed dressings are only effective in the year applied and effectiveness can be influenced by initial inoculum level and how conducive the season is for the disease

• Even when sowing in April, into drying soil, establishment of canola was better at 1 cm compared to 3 or 7 cm.
• Sowing small OP seed deeper, at 3 and 7 cm, resulted in the poorest establishment and yield.
• In difficult conditions hybrid seed was better able to establish than OP canola.

• Even when sowing in April, into drying soil, establishment of canola was better at 1 cm compared to 3 or 7 cm.
• Sowing small OP seed deeper, at 3 and 7 cm, resulted in the poorest establishment and yield.
• In difficult conditions hybrid seed was better able to establish than OP canola.

• There was a trend of more yield from evenly spaced plants compared to unevenly spaced plants with a 5% improvment at lower plant densities, however this was not statistically significant.
• Spacing plants more evenly did affect some aspects of plants growth.
• Canola yields were above 2.5t/ha from low plant density, 10 plants per square metre

•  Grower practice N rates at both sites were the most economical
•  Applying higher rates of N to maintain or increase protein was not profitable if yield did not also increase
•  Grain markets should be watched in case higher quality grades fetch significantly higher prices
•  Increased nitrogen can lead to increased incidence of powdery mildew if not controlled early in the season.

In this 2013 trial:

• Increasing nitrogen fertiliser, over 100 kg N/ha, increased canola yields.
• Nitrogen had no significant effect on oil%.
• Splitting nitrogen applications had no effect on canola yield, oil or gross margins.
• Hyola 404RR had a higher gross margin of $506/ha, compared with $436 for ATR Stingray (TT), in spite of the higher seed costs.
• To get $2 for every $1 spent on nitrogen the economic optimum rates of nitrogen at this site in 2013    were:                                                                                                                                                                # 45 kg N/ha for ATR Stingray (TT OP).

                                       # 70 kg N/ha for Hyola 4040RR (RR hybrid).

In this 2013 trial:

• Applying nitrogen 12 weeks after sowing had a similar effect as the same total nitrogen rates applied earlier.
• Nitrogen had a minor effect on oil%, with rates above 50 kg N/ha tending to reduce oil.
• Applying higher than 50 kg N/ha to ATR Stingray increased yield but was of little economic benefit. 
• Grain yield of Hyola 404RR responded to 150 kg/ha of applied nitrogen, but gross margins were optimised at 75 kg N/ha.

In this 2013 trial:

Nitrogen applications at 12 weeks produced similar canola yield to earlier applications.

OP TT and hybrid RR varieties had a similar response to nitrogen timing and rate.

The OP TT variety ATR Stingray produced greater grain yields and returns than the hybrid RR variety Hyola 404R.

Gross margins were maximised at lower rates of nitrogen than grain yield.

• Hyola 404RR outperformed ATR Stingray.
• Canola yield responded positively to applied N.
• Oil decreased as N rate increased.
• N had no effect on gross margins.
• Timing of nitrogen had no consistent effect on grain yield, oil or gross margins. 

In this 2013 trial;

• Applying nitrogen 12 weeks after sowing had a similar effect as the same total nitrogen rates applied earlier.
• Nitrogen reduced on oil%, and late N reduced it more than early N.
• Applying more than 25 kg N/ha to ATR Stingray increased yield but was of little economic benefit. 
• Grain yield of Hyola 404RR responded to 150 kg/ha of applied nitrogen, but gross margin was highest at 75 kg N/ha.

In this 2015 trial;

• Economic response plateaued at 75 kg N/ha – lower than grain yield (125 kg N/ha)
• Nitrogen applications at 12 and 14 weeks produced similar canola responses to N applied earlier in the year – but no added benefit.
• OP TT and hybrid RR varieties had a similar response to nitrogen timing and rate.

 

Previous research has shown good snail control comes from snails being able to come across baits and feed on them. The more even the bait distribution, the more likely the snails will come across a bait, feed on it and die.

It is becoming more common to apply baits aerially, but there have been no previous studies on the distribution of baits applied from aircraft.

In this study, we found the distribution of baits varied depending on the distance from the flight path of the plane and that bait application swath widths of the plane needed to be 15 metres rather than 30 metres. This trial highlighted that better calibration techniques are needed for aerially applied bait applications.

Canola yields in low and medium rainfall regions of south-western Australia are inherently low and variable.  We have shown that although N fertilisation increases the yield of canola, the yield increases are often relatively low.  Nitrogen also reduces the concentration of oil in the seed of canola and the rate of decrease can be rapid in low rainfall areas. 

The combined effect of N on yield and oil, along with the current payment structure for high oil canola, results in uncertain economic returns from N fertilisation in low to medium rainfall areas. 

We found that 90% of maximum gross margin was achieved at an average nitrogen rate of 17 kg N/ha, and the first 10 kg N/ha gave a return on investment in N greater than $1.50 per $1 in 80% of occurrences (experiments x variety combinations).  The next 20 kg N/ha applied gave a return on investment in N of $1.25 for every $1 spent on N in 80% of occurrences, and further increases were most likely to breakeven. 

We have shown that while farmers should continue to plan to apply N onto canola within the first eight weeks, delaying top-up N until 12 weeks after sowing – when the canola crop is near flowering, is a viable second option which provides some level of risk management for canola growers in low and medium rainfall areas in south-western Australia.

• Time of weed removal at the high rainfall site did not affect canola yield but the canola had a higher biomass when weeds were removed earlier.
• The medium rainfall site had consecutively higher wheat yields with earlier times of weed removal; however these were not significantly different.
• At the low rainfall site plots sprayed for summer weeds had significantly higher oat yields than unsprayed plots. Timely control of summer weeds increased soil moisture and nitrate conservation.

Both invertebrate pests and beneficials are found in association with chaff in paddocks. However, the species composition depends on the location of the paddock. Paddocks located in the Albany port zone are more likely to have higher densities of pests associated with chaff, whereas paddocks located in the Kwinana East port zone had the least pest densities and highest numbers of seed-harvesting ants associated with chaff.

The most abundant beneficials were weed seed harvesting ants which were found in close association with chaff. As these ants predate on weed seeds and live in holes in the ground, it is unlikely they are using chaff as a refuge, it is more probable that they are foraging in the chaff. This trend presents an opportunity to investigate in greater detail whether seed-harvesting ants provide an economic benefit to growers by consuming weed seeds from HWSC systems left to rot-in-situ.

Pitfall trapping was able to capture a higher diversity of invertebrate species than direct sampling of chaff. As pitfall trapping did not rely on samplers locating an invertebrate, it is more likely to be a more accurate representation of species presence and diversity in a paddock. However, this technique does rely on invertebrates moving and falling into a pitfall trap.

Leaving chaff to rot-in-situ does not affect abundances of pests such as desiantha weevil. However, other pests do use chaff as refuges. For instance, pest beetles, Rutherglen bugs, European earwigs were found in association with chaff. It is unlikely these species are feeding on chaff, but rather are using chaff as a refuge. This survey was not able to determine if long term retention of chaff will increase abundances of these pests.

There was no correlation between the presence of chaff and the presence of a mouse holes, nor was there a correlation with HWSC system and the presence of mice.

Of the twenty paddocks sampled for mice, only 5 paddocks had active mouse holes.  Four paddocks  were located near Minginew and had at most two active holes along 4 transects. These are considered to have low levels of mice. One paddock in Esperance had mouse numbers that were considered high, at this site there were an estimated 488 mouse holes per hectare. 

 

• None of the products tested repelled snails from senesced barley plants in the laboratory experiment.
• No treatment caused significant mortality of conical snails when assessed after 21 days compared to a water treatment.
• The Esperance field trial demonstrated pyroligneous acid having no repellence effect on the snails.
• This reinforces that products should only be used at registered rates, times and methods of application in crops for which they are registered.

• Quality of on-farm lime and distance from coastal limesand sources are important factors in determining economic advantage over coastal limesand
• Cultivation of sources resulted in higher net present values after the 20 year iLime simulation, and improved return on investments at 5 and 10 years compared to when uncultivated
• In 2019 cultivation consistently improved yield and the high rates of local dolerite and limesand improved yield by 0.55t/ha and 0.57t/ha respectively.
• Due to the 2020 season and in season challenges there were no significant differences in yield between sources and cultivation

• In 2017, the crown rot index (incidence x severity) of wheat was influenced by nutrition strategy, with disease index being the greatest at the highest N rate. There was a strong negative correlation between crown rot index and yield under different nutrition strategies.
• In 2017, the crown rot index of barley was only influenced by variety: nutrition had no significant effect.

• The highest yielding treatment was Calibre (RAC2721) sown on 28 April, achieving just over 4.6t/ha.
• Yields of over 4t/ha were consistently achieved by mid-slow to slow maturing spring wheats sown on 14 April and quick to mid maturing spring wheats sown 28 April. This coincided with flowering occurring during August.
• Despite being sown onto field pea stubble with 75kg N/ha applied, high yielding (4+ t/ha) treatments rarely met APW1 protein specifications, indicating that at these high yields greater nitrogen applications are required to achieve premium milling grades.

In this 2014 trial at Kojonup-West:

• Canola grain yield and gross margins were more dependent on nitrogen rates than the application timings.
• There was no effect of delayed nitrogen application on grain yield or gross margins up to 100 kg N/ha.
• At 125 kg N/ha, a significant yield and gross margins reduction was observed when nitrogen was applied as a 3-way split (50 kg within 8 weeks, 50 kg/ha at 12 and 25 kg/ha at 16 weeks after seeding) compared to when all of the nitrogen was applied within 8 weeks of seeding.

• Canola grain yield and gross margins were more dependent on nitrogen rates than the application timings.
• Delaying application of nitrogen after 8 weeks reduced canola yield.  The reduction was greater the higher the proportion of total applied N delayed.  
• Hyola 404RR produced significantly higher grain yield and oil than ATR Wahoo, but similar gross margins.

• Canola responded to N applied as late as 12 weeks after seeding but not as much as to N applied at 4 or 8 weeks.  Hyola 404 RR and CB Telfer responded similarly in terms of yield.
• Nitrogen reduced oil %, and late N reduced it more than early N.  Oil was more sensitive to applied N in CB Telfer than in Hyola 404 RR.
• Grain yield continued to respond to 100 kg N/ha but the highest gross margin was at 75 kg/ha in Hyola 404 RR and at 100 kg/ha in CB Telfer.

In this 2013 trial;

• Canola grain yield responded positively to nitrogen application.
• Canola oil content responded negatively to nitrogen application.
• Therefore a wide number of treatments produced equal highest gross margins.
• The lowest rate of nitrogen treatment to produce maximum returns was 25 kg N/ha applied 4 weeks after sowing.
• We found treatments applied 12 weeks after sowing when the canola was flowering produced. similar results to applications applied at 8 weeks after sowing – which is the industry norm.
• Hyola 404RR produced higher oil but equal yield and gross margins to CB Telfer.